Human activities, particularly fishing, have profound impacts on marine ecosystems. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are implemented to mitigate these effects by conserving habitats and biodiversity, yet their benefits to fisheries remain controversial. This study explores the spillover effect of MPAs, particularly from Fully Protected Areas (FPAs) to adjacent areas, where fish biomass movement can enhance yields. The effectiveness of this process depends on factors such as protection level, MPA design, and species traits. Across three MPAs, FPAs consistently supported higher abundance and biomass of commercial species compared to unprotected areas (UPAs), with partially protected areas (PPAs) providing intermediate benefits. Spillover effects were detected in 13 species, with declines in abundance and biomass observed with increasing distance from FPAs, especially for highly mobile species. Conversely, species with low or medium commercial value were less likely to exhibit biomass spillover. MPA age and species mobility were key predictors of spillover biomass, emphasizing the role of long-term protection and species traits in ecological outcomes. While FPAs hold promise for supporting small-scale fisheries, benefits may not be immediate and could involve short-term trade-offs. Comprehensive studies and methodologies are needed to optimize spillover effects, balancing conservation goals with socioeconomic considerations for sustainable fisheries management.
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